Ecstasy in Rome
The sacred cry strikes to heaven with the praises of the eternal Lord and the pinnacle of the Capitol totters with the shock. The neglected images in the empty temples tremble when struck by the pious voices, and are overthrown by the name of Christ. Terrified demons abandon their deserted shrines. The envious serpent pale with rage struggles in vain, his lips bloodstained, bemoaning with his hungry throat the redemption of man, and at the same time now, with unavailing groans, the predator writhes around his dry altars cheated of the blood of sacrificial cattle…" (Paulinus of Nola, Carmen XIX.45-47)
This is Rome in the 4th century after Christ, a time commonly known to us as Late Antiquity, the period of the "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire". At the same time this is one of the most formative phases in European history: The turning point, where Antiquity leads into the Middle Ages, converting old into new, blending pagan past with Christian present.
The scriptures of the church fathers unanimously draw a picture of an overwhelming triumph of the Christian creed. According to them, with the (alleged) conversion of Constantine in 312 the old and tired heathen religions gave way to a youthful new belief. Victories of Roman emperors are now interpreted as victories of God; the history of mankind equals the history of His church. They argue that at no point were the old gods able to prevent the terrible defeats, plagues and misfortunes of the past and present, and it is only since the arrival of Jesus Christ that the Roman Empire achieved its predestined vocation: To spread the true and only faith all over the world.
However, as we shall see, to the contemporaries the situation presented itself slightly differently or even more than that, was no way near this claim. At a closer look, these loudmouthed statements turn out to be based more on wishful thinking and propaganda. Pagan culture very much thrived at the time and had a huge followership.
Countless poems, letters and inscriptions confirm the variety of a phenomenon for which "paganism" is an all too generalizing term. In reality the religious situation in mid 4th century Rome was more than colorful. Christians, Jews, Manichaeans, Neoplatonics, followers of the old gods, of the Great Mother, of Bacchus and of hundreds of domestic gods, which had been taken over from the conquered nations all over the world, populated the capital on the river Tiber.
Their brethren, temples, chapels, shrines and sanctuaries spread all over the city and their festivals and celebrations added to the calendar of the Roman year. One such calendar, the so-called calendar of Filocalus, for the year 354 has survived and lists no less than 177 official holy-days - in the strictest sense of the word! - for a seemingly endless variety of gods and goddesses. Interestingly enough, not one Christian celebration is to be found amongst them!
Following our ancient guides leads us on a fascinating journey through the temples and sanctuaries of late Rome, which still is, in stark contrast to the Christian voice at the beginning "…strengthened by the prophecies of the Sybil and given life by the sacred rites of Numa. For her Jupiter shakes his thunderbolt and Tritonia covers her fully with her Gorgon shield. Here Vesta brought her secret torches, Bacchus his rites and the tower-crowned mother her Phrygian lions …" (Claudian, De consulatu Stilichonis III.130-73)
The highest festival was still the Ludi Magni Romani, the Great Roman Games, of ancient and revered origin. The pinnacle of the celebrations, stretching over several days, was the day, when, according to tradition, the foundations once had been laid for the great temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline hill, the 13.September. No expense was spared, when the highest god of the community was celebrated, together with his wife and daughter, Juno and Minerva. Statues of all three of them were to be found inside the temple. Surrounding the main event - the so-called epulones, festive meals for the gods - huge processions along the Via Sacra, markets and finally games in the Circus Maximus took place. A priesthood, especially appointed for the occasion, prepared the epulones. They purified and adorned the statues, prepared rooms and the sacred meal itself. It was to be shared between a selected community of deserving members of the society and the gods, symbolized by the statues, which lay on beds. On a much smaller scale, all over the town similar meals were held by the Roman families.
Similarly, the Plebeian Games still took place, in honour of Ceres, Flora and Apollo. These festivities, as the involved deities show, are closely connected to the peasant origins of the town. In the 4th century however, they had already long lost their religious meaning - it was the mere colorfulness of the rites, which attracted the masses. The most ancient brethren in their traditional robes processed through town and to their temples: the Pontifices, the Sacerdotes, the Flamines, Auguri, Vestal Virgins, Epulones, the Salii, the Arval brethren, Luperci and so forth. Each of these offices originally had their specific and often very strict codes. The high priest of Jupiter for example, the Flamen Dialis, literally translated the "Divine Flame", was forbidden under any circumstances to touch horses, goats, dogs, and meat, dead or alive. Ivy, beans, wheat and bread were prohibited, he was not allowed to have any knot on him or cut his nails and hair with an iron knife. Ancient rituals and instructions, which led far back in the past and which in the 4th century, certainly had lost their meaning to the people and even the priests themselves. This is a similar development as it can be noticed with many of toady's religious celebrations, like for example the continental 'plague plays', which are until today held in observance of a once made promise if God would end or prevent the black death. These also attract a great number of spectators, but have today almost completely lost their religious roots.
The "Divine Flame" was also present when one of the oldest and, from a modern point of view, probably most incomprehensible ritual took place, again closely connected to the origins of the town as a rural community: The Lupercals. Its celebration is well documented up to the late 5th century when pope Gelasius strongly protested against its strange and distinctly pagan rites. And most strange they are: Starting on the 15.February at the Lupercal, the cave where according to legend the she-wolf had fed Romulus and Remus, a number of he-goats were sacrificed. A priest then touched the foreheads of two young noblemen with the bloody knife. The blood is now wiped away with a lump of wool, drained in milk, the two young men laugh out loud and, wrapped in the furs of the killed animals, they start a boisterous race around the borders of the ancient town. On their way they hit bystanders, especially young women with whips, made from the skin of the goats.
Many more ancient and still popular holidays survived in the 4th century, like the 21.April, official birthday of the city of Rome - the "Eternal City" of the pagan world, long before the Christians claimed this term for their own and exclusive use -, or the countless birthdays of the domestic and state gods. On the 2.February for example there was Hercules, on 1.March, Mars, 3.April, Quirinus, 8.April, the divine twins and protectors of the town Castor and Pollux, in August, Salus, Sol and Luna (the godesses of public wealth, the son and the moon), other days were reserved for Fortuna, Persephone, Hermes, the Penates, Diana etc….
Even the late emperors and empresses counted among the gods - with a few understandable exceptions like Caracalla, Nero or Messalina - and membership in their priesthood's was highly regarded and sought after. Herodian describes the ceremony that took place on the occasion of such a state funeral: "It is the practice of the Romans to deify those of their emperors who die, leaving children to succeed them. They call the act apotheosis. Mourning is observed all through Rome, curiously mixed with festival celebrations and religious worship. They inter the body of the dead emperor in the ordinary way with a costly funeral. Then they make a wax image exactly like the dead man, and expose it to view on a large ivory couch spread with cloth of gold and elevated on a platform, in the entrance hall of his palace. .." Over seven days visitors come and go, the Senate attends the sick bed of the "emperor", hymns and praises are sung. On the eighth day "… they carry the bier out of the city to the Campus Martius . Here in the widest section of the open space there has been erected a square structure, built entirely of huge logs, rather like a house. This is completely filled with brushwood, and ornamented outside with gold-embroidered hangings, ivory statues and a variety of pictures. On top of this erection a similar but smaller one is built, with open doors and windows, and above it a third and fourth in diminishing sequence, with the smallest on top… They take the bier up to the second storey and set it down there, heaping up every sort of aromatic spice and incense and every kind of fragrant fruit, herb or juice ... When a vast heap of these aromatics is collected and the entire chamber filled with them there is a cavalry procession around the pyre and the whole equestrian order circle round in formation … Chariots move round in the same formation, their drivers wearing masks resembling the most distinguished Roman emperors and military commanders. When this part of the ceremony is finished the heir to the throne applies a torch to the construction and the others fire the pile from all sides. The whole thing goes up in flames … And from the smallest storey at the very top, as from a pinnacle, an eagle is released to mount into the sky together with the fire, taking the emperor's soul from earth to heaven, as the Romans believe. Thereafter he is worshipped with the other gods;" (Herodian 4,2)
The duties of their priesthood, the Augustales, included the observance of the birth- and death dates of the former heads of state, to give games, gifts and sacrifices in their honour and therefore keep the memory alive - a bit like the Christian tradition of saying prayers and holding masses for our beloved on their days of birth or death. In the 4th century these alone amounted to no less than 98 days!
All these cults, brethren and festivities reflect a very ancient attitude towards religion, which has few in common with a modern, let alone Christian view. It was normal to believe in many gods, and to sacrifice on one altar did not exclude the believer from prayer at another. Some inscriptions of Roman magistrates show how many sacred offices and priesthoods it was possible for them to take on: "To the Divine Shades. Vettius Agorius Praetextatus, Augur, Priest of Vesta, Priest of the Sun, Member of the Fifteen, Curial of Hercules, Consecrated to Liber and the deities of Eleusis, Hierophant, Superintendent Minister, initiated by the bull's blood Father of Fathers…." (CIL 6,1,1779)
Modern perceptions of indifference in religious matters are beside the point. Some authors have described Late Antiquity as the "Age of spirituality", i.e. an era of seeking, a time when many of the believers tried to get to the core of things and gain a deeper understanding of the meaning of life. In the opinion of the time there was not only one way leading to this aim. A Roman author, Symmachus, probably the most famous exponent of paganism of his time, expresses this widespread and surprisingly modern attitude: "It is reasonable that all the different gods we worship should be thought of as one. We see the same stars, share the same sky, the same earth surrounds us: what does it matter what scheme of thought a man uses in his search for the truth. Man cannot come to so profound a mystery by one road alone…" (Symmacus, Relatio III,10)
The idea is typical for the 4th century, but also neatly corresponds with a very traditional view towards religion, which in its practicality is very Roman: The relations between gods and humans resemble a contract in which both sides have to fulfill the mutually agreed conditions to the letter (and logically it follows, the more gods the more goods!). All the gods' entitled rites and instructions have to be thoroughly observed, in exchange they in turn provide wealth and health. The head of state is responsible for mankind playing its part, hence the important function of the Roman Emperor to supervise all cults and religions as a supreme priest of all, the Pontifex Maximus.
This leads us to another phenomenon in Rome during Late Antiquity, shrouded in mystery and secrecy. The notorious mystery religions have over the centuries again and again raised the interest, or rather: curiosity, of academics and public alike. Nonsensical ideas of black magic, obscene rituals, child sacrifice and supernatural forces surround them. Christian writers, who for obvious reasons had no intention to present a fair picture of their opponents, are only partly to blame for such misinterpretation. On the other hand there is an element of zeitgeist, the taste of our own, modern times for everything that can be connected to the secret and supernatural.
Arguably the cult, which raised the most attention, was the cult for the Great Mother of Earth, also known as Demeter, Magna Mater, Kybele, and her lover Attis. In the 2nd century BC Roman soldiers on their campaigns in the Hellenistic east first had been initiated into its excessive rites and brought it back to Rome. Soon it raised the eyebrows of the old senatorial elite, for who such ceremonies unseen and unheard of in the old days, presented a serious threat to Romankind and the sheer existence of the state. It was declared illegal, but after spending several years in the underground (as it usually happens in cases like that), was re-established under the emperors. Over the centuries to follow it proved to be one of the firmest and most successful religious communities not only in the capital. Thanks to the above mentioned calendar, we can follow its highest celebrations, which took place in March: "...22.March - the tree enters the city, 24.March - the blood, 25.March - jubilation, 27.March - purification, 28.March - the birth of Attis." (Calendar of Philocalus, March)
Basically, the listed events describe the story of the love between Demeter and Attis, his death and resurrection. All over the Roman Empire countless variations of this legend occur, a fact which need not surprise us: Other than in the Jewish, Islamic or Christian systems, the canonization of legends, rites or traditions was something unknown to heathen religion.
As we have seen, the main celebrations began on the 22.March. A freshly cut pine tree was solemnly taken into the temple of Demeter on the Capitoline hill, where it was adorned with ribbons and pennants under prayers and chantations. Violets symbolize the blood, which was shed by the young god, when he committed suicide under the tree. Finally a portrait of Attis himself is attached to the trunk. Little do we know about the ceremonies of the following day, the 23.March, which are dedicated to the preparation of the faithful. We hear about festive music, trumpets, and prayers. The third day is the "Day of the Blood", both fascinating and horrifying for contemporary Christian witnesses. The high priest, the Archigallus, cuts his arm with a knife and sheds his own blood over the tree, followed by the other priests. They then lead the whole community in an ecstatic procession, under wild dances and flagellation through the streets of the city. At last in frenzy the most faithful few castrate themselves, an act which entitles them to enter priesthood. The procession ends in tears and sorrow. The community mourns the death of the god and as a symbol buries his effigy.
Firmicus Maternus, a Christian author, describes to us the ensuing ceremonies in his book "About the error of the pagan religions": "One night an image is laid face upward on a couch and lamented with tears and rhythmic chants. Then, when they have glutted themselves with fake mourning, the light is brought in. The throats of all who have lamented are then anointed with by the priest and, after the anointing, the priest whispers these words in a soft murmur: 'Take courage, initiates of the mystery of a god now saved. For you will come salvage from suffering.'…" (F.Maternus, De errore profanarum religionum, 18,21,22)
The joy and elation about salvation expresses itself in the celebrations, festive dinners and parties which extend over the "Day of Jubilation". After that a day of recuperation, fasting and contemplation was clearly necessary. On the 27. the statue of the goddess is taken out of the temple and put on a chart, drawn by oxen. Down the steep streets of the Capitol hill it goes through the town to a little river nearby, the Almo, where the effigy, together with the chart and the instruments of worship are solemnly dropped into the stream and purified. Now at last everything is prepared for the reappearance of the young god and, under heaps of flowers, everything is taken back to the temple.
However, these lavish public rituals only show one side of the cult, displayed only once a year on this particular occasion. Alongside there were numerous smaller events, like lents, sacred meals, and a very peculiar baptizing ceremony, the details of which in particular incensed Christian onlookers: "As you know a trench is dug, and the high priest plunges deep underground to be sanctified. He wears a curious headband, fastens fillets for the occasion around his temples, fixes his hair with a crown of gold, holds up his robes of silk with a belt from Gabii. Over his head they lay a plank-platform criss-cross, fixed so that the wood is open not solid; then they cut or bore through the floor and make holes in the wood with an awl at several points till it is plentifully perforated with small openings. A large bull, with grim, shaggy features and garlands of flowers round his neck or entangling his horns, is escorted to the spot. The victim's head is shimmering with gold and the sheen of the goldleafs lends colour to his hair. The animal destined for sacrifice is at the appointed place. They consecrate a spear and with it pierce his breast…" (Prudentius, Peristephanon 10,1011-50)
Let's skip the rest of this gruesome ceremony and turn to yet another and highly influential community in Rome, the community of the worshippers of Isis, a cult of Egyptian origin. The "calendar" and other sources quote the two main events in the "church of Isis": The "Navigium Isidis" and "Isia". The first, the "Vessel of Isis" on the 5.March, officially opens the shipping season and consists of a colourful procession to the harbour of the town. Its main ceremonies however, fall into autumn. They take place between the 28.October and the 03.November, and describe, similar to the cult of Demeter and Attis, a love story, on this occasion between Isis and her brother Osiris - the marriage between brothers and sisters emphasizing its Egyptian origin. In this case the male counterpart is killed by his envious brother, Seth, and, after a long and adventurous search, resurrected by his sister.
The symbol of Isis, a golden calf in a black veil is paraded through the streets of Rome - the biblical account about the events at Mount Sinai springs to mind (and it certainly is a reference to Egyptian religious practices coming re-alive in the Jewish people). The personnel appearing in the procession stages the story of the search of Isis for her vanished husband and brother Osiris: The soldier, the fisherman, the hunter, the gladiator, the civil servant, the philosopher and the woman. Female worshippers sprinkle perfume, incense and flowers, others carry the toiletries of the goddess, like combs and polished mirrors. Singers and torchbearers follow them. Only linen and cotton clothes are allowed, the women go veiled and the heads of the men are shorn. And then come the priests: "First of all is the 'singer' ... and after him follows the 'watcher of the hours'; he holds in his hands a clock and palm branch as the symbols of astrology ... The the 'divine writer' appears; he wears a feather on his head and in his hands a book and a basket, in which there is a inkwell and a magic wand ... After that comes the Kleiderwart; he carries the hand of justice and a pitcher for libation ... And at last appears the 'speaker of the words of god' and he holds, visible for all, the water pitcher in his lap; he is followed by the men, who carry the bread to be distributed ..." (Clemens of Alexandria, Strom.VI 4,35,2-37,1; transl. after Merkelbach, Isis p.155)
Many of the Christian churches have been built over the caves dedicated to a very secretive and, literally, underground cult: The cult of Mithras. However, only partly did they succeed in suppressing the evidence of another thriving community. Too numerous are the inscriptions, the altar stones, the statues of this cult, like the other mystery religions descending from the east. In one aspect however, it was completely different. Where the other cults made no distinction in terms of gender this one did: Only men were allowed into the community. Little wonder that its biggest followership was with the most male profession at the time, the soldiers. All over the Roman Empire, in every little military outpost we find its symbols and caves.
We hear about the seven grades of initiation, the raven, bridegroom, soldier, lion, Persian, the heliodrome and the father, each of them standing under the protection of a particular planet and god. Strange symbols adorn the caves. Most of them have lost their meaning to us and we know precious little about its mythology. The caves seem to symbolize the world, and at the same time the birthplace of the saviour god Mithras.
Let's visit one of its meeting rooms, an underground chapel, as they were found underneath the Piazza Navicella, San Stefano Rotondo and many other places. These rooms were small, and only rarely offered space for more than 30 or 40 faithful. There are the statues of the planet gods, among them Chronos, the lionheaded, half human half animal, guardian of time, a snake winding around his body. The sparse ancient scriptures mention effectful illuminations, which might appear likely for a god who was regarded as the god of sun and fire by his followers. Archaeological findings support this statement. Their grottos are full of light shafts, openings and hidden niches for lamps or candles. On benches along the walls sat the worshippers, mosaics on the floor show the "Mithras ladder", a depiction of the rise from one grade to another. Everything is concentrated towards the end of the room. In a niche stood the statue of Mithras flanked by his helpers Cautes and Cautophates, sunrise and sunset, slaying the bull and bringing salvation to the world. Reliefs surround the central scene, telling the legend of the god, and again depicting raven, bridegroom, soldier etc. and the planet gods. Here the ceremonies took place, of which it is hard to paint a meaningful picture; far too sparse and far too biased are the descriptions in the writings of Christian authors. One of them describes a baptizing, fascinating in its strangeness: "Some flap their wings and imitate the cry of a raven, while others roar like the lions. Some have their hands bound with fowls' entrails and water is spilled over them, while some one appears with a sword, cuts the ties and calls himself 'the saviour'…" (Ps.Augustinus, Qaestiones vetereis et novi testamenti 113,11; transl.after Merkelbach, Mithras p.138)
One question has been frequently asked: How come the Christian belief could overthrow and drive away all the ancient cults? Some researchers have pointed out the organisation of the church, and others Christian intolerance, which proved to be an effective weapon against the tolerance - or indifference? - of the pagan cults. Well known is the accusation of opportunism towards the emperors, and its consistency in "ideology" might have played a part. However, this is hardly enough to explain its success, which after all could not have occurred without its huge attraction to the masses, certainly the basis of the success of every movement. Is it not rather that this development gives us a fascinating insight into changing attitudes towards religion - one might even say, here the history of ideas becomes tangible, as opposed to the official and political history, based on names, dates, battles and treaties. The "Age of Spiritualism", as we have called it before, was no longer content with the old beliefs. They worked after a principle simple enough, "Give to the gods and they'll give you back", but after all, they showed no perspective beyond life. Mystery religion was one step nearer, however was still very much part of the ancient world, insofar as it did not claim to be the one and only bringer of salvation. Also, it has been questioned if their promises and visions aimed so much to the after life, rather than being very much of this world. Additionally - as the name shows! - these were elite societies with no interest of converting the masses and bringing salvation to any other party than themselves. Nothing shows that better than the oath of the initiands: "I swear by Him, who has separated earth from heaven, and darkness from light, and day from night, and beginning from end, and life from death, and growth from decay, and black from white, and dry from wet, and water from land, and bitter from sweet, and flesh from soul, and I also swear by the gods I worship on my knees, to preserve the mysteries which had been passed on to me and to keep them secret. If I keep this my oath, I will be well and the opposite if I break it and betray it to anyone." (Pap.Soc.It. 1162 & 1290; transl. after Merkelbach, Isis p.170)
Certainly it cannot be underestimated what Christian religion meant to mankind in Late Antiquity. However, there was real and substantive threat against the existence of the Christian church. It came from two altogether different quarters: Manichaeism (or Gnosticism as it is also known) and the heretic sects. The one was a danger because of its superficial similarity combined with a seemingly more consistent and logical ideology, the others because of their lifethreatening division they brought into the church.
From our perspective the attraction the Manichaean church possessed can hardly be appreciated. Enough to mention that it had an elaborate organisation, very similar to the Catholic Church of the day, and very importantly as we have seen a message which pointed beyond life and towards salvation in the afterlife. It might not be common knowledge that many later Christian dignitaries started their religious life as Manichaeans, among them no one less than the churchfather Augustinus, author of the famous "God's Kingdom"! Their ascetic and fanatic priests spread the word of their founder Mani all over the known world: "Wisdom and good deeds have always from time to time been brought to mankind by the messengers of god. So in one age they have been brought by the messenger called Buddha to India, in another by Zarathustra to Persia, in another by Jesus to the West. Thereupon this revelation has come down, this prophecy in this last age, through me Mani, messenger of the God of Truth to Babylonia." (Mani, Sabuhragan; transl. after Lieu p.60)
This world, according to Mani was divided between the principles of good and evil, which are tied in a cosmic and predestined battle. The earth is a product of this fight, carrying in itself particles of both, the flesh being the evil and the soul reflecting the good. For mankind there is no escape and no free will, like angels, demons, gods and prophets - Jesus being one of them - they are participants, messengers or helpers in a war which in the end will lead to salvation.
The missionaries of Mani were highly educated and managed to draw Christian bishops, who at that time often could hardly read or write and were certainly not too versed in dogmatic problems, into public debates. There the Christian bishops all too often were easy pray. They had to openly admit the apparent inconsistencies of the Christian teachings - especially between Old and New Testament. In the end however, the dark and antiworldy ideology of Mani could not match the positive message pushed forward by the great Christian scholars, who from the 4th century onward sought and gained the initiative.
Manichaeism in the end turned back to its geographical roots in the east, and over the centuries spread as far as China. Also, certain elements of the Gnosis never lost its fascination, even attraction for Christians. Its strict observance, asceticism and ceaseless fight against the evil played an important role in some of the arguments of the medieval church - as so brilliantly shown in the "Name of the Rose".
At last a look at the situation of the Christian, or Catholic Church. The term "Christian or Catholic Church" in this context might be misleading or even wrong, since it suggests a unity and consistency which certainly did not exist - and maybe never did in its history! In the years following the Council of Nicea in 325 AD the heated arguments between Arianism and Orthodoxism separated the church, which (surprisingly?) was as much an ideological battle as it was a struggle for power in the church. Beyond that there were countless splinter groups, each with it s own variations in teaching and ritual, Judaeo-Christians, Novatians, Paulianists and many more.
Another severe cause for concern were hordes of monks, fanatic and uncontrollable and, according to contemporary statements, only pretending their faith, showing off their asceticism - who insulted orderly priests and lived in constant havoc, bickering and argument. They played a sad role in many incidents, not necessarily confined to religious matters.
After all, however, the triumph of the Christian creed was inescapable, and it was more to its message than anything else, that it proved so successful and attractive to mankind. A political advantage was certainly the support of the Roman Emperors, who from their point of view recognized and used the unifying potential of this religion for the people of the Empire. A decisive point in time was reached when in 392 AD Theodosius officially and finally disallowed the practicing of pagan ceremonies: "No person whatever, of any class or order of men of rank, whether he holds a position or enjoys an honour, whether powerful due to the lot of his birth or lowly by reason of parentage, station or fortune, in any place whatever or any city should either slaughter an innocent victim or insensate images or with a more furtive pollution honour his household Lar with fire, his Genius with wine, or his Penates with incense; nor shall he light candles, or offer incense or hang up garlands ..." (CTh XVI 10,12)
However, against all odds paganism still survived, even until long after the transition of the Western Empire to Odoakar in 476. As one indication, the frequent repetition of laws such as the above and numerous complaints from bishops and popes speak a clear language and show that it was very much alive until late into the 6th century.
After all, there remains one question: What has happened to the rich world of ancient paganism, to its rituals, symbols, instruments, holy days and holy places? Has it all disappeared without leaving any traces? On the contrary. The Christian church, certainly acting very sensibly and sensitively, has taken over many pagan elements, has transformed and made them into their own. Statues like the Demeter with the small Dionysos were easily and convincingly reinterpreted as Mary and Jesus. Pagan ceremonies were transformed into Christian holy days, best known Christmas, which replaced the birthday celebrations for the sun god. Incense found its way into Christian liturgy, formerly "incense user" being a swearword for a worshipper of the ancient gods. Symbols like the crescent moon of Isis became a symbol for the Virgin Mary, and Christian churches were erected on the sites of, or sometimes even built directly into pagan temples. Priestly robes still resemble their pagan predecessors - especially the papal costume with its extensive use of the colour purple - formerly for imperial use only (another parallel is the later introduction of the organ) - which thus directly underlines the role of its bearer as the new Pontifex Maximus.
And after all, is walking through the streets of London on a Sunday evening at the end of the 20th century, with all its variety of peoples and religions, so very different from Rome on a Sunday evening in 354?
Literature:
J. Ferguson, Greek and Roman Religion. A Sourcebook, Noyes Classical Studies, 1982.
M. R. Salzmann, On Roman Time, The Codex Calendar of 354 and the Rythms of Urban Life in Late Antiquity, Univ.of Calif.Press 1990.
B. Cook & J. Harris, Religious Conflict in 4th Century Rome, Sydney Univ.Press 1982.
F. Kolb, Religion und Kult, in: Rom. Die Geschichte der Stadt in der Antike, Munich Beck 1995, p.607-642.
R. Merkelbach, Isis Regina - Zeus Serapis. Die griechisch-ägyptische Religion nach den Quellen dargestellt, Stuttgart/Leipzig Teubner 1995.
R. Merkelbach, Mithras, Hain 1984.
J. Ferguson, The Religions of the Roman Empire, London 1982.
S.N.C. Lieu, Manichaeism in the Later Roman Empire and Medieval China. A Historical Survey, Manchester 1985.
R. Turcan, The Cults of the Roman Empire, Oxford 1996.
R.E. Witt, Isis in the Graeco-Roman World, London 1971.
, Mysterienreligionen, Munich 1997.
© Dirk Bennett 2003